A cross-sectional study of male and female C57BL/6Nia mice suggests lifespan and healthspan are not necessarily correlated

Body composition

As is typically seen in C57BL/6 mice, mean body mass of males was greater than females at all ages measured. Somewhat surprisingly, there was no weight difference between the 20 and 28-month age groups in either males or females ( difference < 0.5g in both sexes). This is distinct from previous studies of C57BL/6 (e.g [19,22,23].), which show relatively consistent weight gain up to about 15-20 months of age and a decline thereafter. 32-month-old females weighed significantly less than females in the 20 or 28-month-old age groups and males showed a similar, albeit non-significant, trend in the same direction. On average, 4-month-old female mice weighed less than 20 and 28-month-old females but were similar to 32-month-old females (Figure 1A). 4-month-old male mice weighed less than older males but body mass did not differ among 20, 28 and 32-month-old males (Figure 1B). Body composition also differed among the four age groups. 4-month-old males and females both had less fat-free mass compared to older mice of all ages (p < 0.0001 in both cases, data not shown). The proportion of body fat differed among the age groups in an age by sex-specific fashion (age * sex interaction, p = 0.002). Among females, percent body fat was greatest in the 20-month-old cohort; 4-month-old females did not differ from 28-month-old females in percent body fat, but did differ from 32-month-olds (Figure 1C). Males in the 4 and 20-month-old age groups had a similar proportion of body fat and had a higher proportion of body fat than males in the 28 and 32-month-old age groups (Figure 1D). Females in the 20-month-old age group were proportionately fatter than males in all age groups (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Males and females in the 4-month-old group had similar percent body fat and did not differ from 20-month old males or 28-month-old animals of either sex. Males and females in the two oldest age groups (28 and 32 months) had similar percent body fat.

Activity and energetics

Both age and sex influenced activity levels in these mice during the dark (=active) phase. Activity levels during the dark phase were reduced in older mice and females were more active than males at all ages (p < 0.0001 in both cases). Four month-old females were more active than older females, who had similar activity levels regardless of age. Similarly, 4-month-old males were more active than older males but 20-month-old males were more active than 28 and 32-month-old mice (Figure 2A,B). Male, but not female, activity during the light phase differed between the age groups; however, individual variability in males’ light phase activity was high. (Figure 2C,D).

Female mice showed no age-related differences in mass-specific metabolic rate during the dark (=active) or during light (=inactive) phases (Figures 3A,C). In contrast, 4-month-old males had higher mass-specific metabolic rates during the dark phase than males in all other age groups and higher rates than 28 and 32-month-old males during the light phase. 20-month-old males had higher mass-specific metabolic rates compared to 28 and 32-month-old males during both light and dark phases (Figure 3B,D).

Similar to previous studies on C57BL/6 by our group [23,24], sleep and sleep fragmentation at various ages differed in a sex-specific fashion (sleep, age * sex p = 0.001; sleep fragmentation, age * sex p < 0.0001). Female, but not male mice, showed age-related differences in total time spent sleeping (Figure 4A,B). Older female mice (ages 28 and 32 months) slept less than 20-month-old females, 4-month-old females slept more than 32-month-old females and 28-month-old females did not differ from 32-month-olds (Figure 4A). In contrast to females, total amount of time males spent sleeping did not differ between age groups (Figure 4B). Male and female mice also showed distinct age-associated patterns of sleep fragmentation as measured during the light (=inactive) phase. Sleep fragmentation was greater in older females (ages 28 and 32 months) than in younger ones (4 and 20 months) (Figure 4C). Overall, sleep fragmentation was greater in older males but the differences only reached significance in pair-wise comparisons of 4 and 32-month-old males (Figure 4D).

A hallmark of human aging is the decline of strength, balance, coordination and neuromuscular function. In humans, measures of gait, balance, coordination and grip strength are commonly used to predict future age-related morbidity and mortality [7,25–28]. We used a cognate set of assays here that are commonly used to measure age-related changes in strength and motor function in mice.

Gait: We measured a range of gait parameters and chose to use two parameters of gait, rear foot stride length and rear foot stance width based on their use in previous studies and because tests of neuromuscular function performed on these animals were done on the rear limbs and tail [29]. In contrast to previous studies by our group and others [19–21,23,24,30] two parameters of gait, stride length and gait width, did not differ between age groups or only differed marginally. Stance width, a measure of the distance between left and right hind feet, did not differ between age groups in either sex (Figure 5A,B). Similarly, rear-foot stride length did not differ between male mice of different ages and showed only a marginally significant difference between age groups in females (p = 0.048) (Figure 5C,D).

Rotarod: Unlike previous studies [21,23,24], female rotarod performance (maximum latency to fall out of six trials) did not differ between age groups (Figure 6A). On the other hand, male rotarod performance was better in younger animals: 4-month-old males remained on the rotarod longer than 28 and 32-month-old male mice. Rotarod performance by 20-month-old males was indistinguishable from all other age groups (Figure 6B).

Grip: Grip strength was reduced in older mice (28 and 32-month-olds) compared to 4-month-olds; mean grip strength was 20% lower in 32-month-old females and 16% lower in 32-month-old males than in sex-matched 4-month-olds. Males had greater grip strength than age-matched females at all ages measured (p < 0.0001 in all cases). 4-month-old and 20-month-old females’ grip strength did not differ and both were stronger than 32-month-olds, but only 4-month-olds were stronger than 28-month-old females. (Figure 7A). Younger male mice (ages 4 and 20 months) had comparable grip strength and were stronger when compared to older mice (ages 28 and 32) (Figure 7B).

The tail flick test is a commonly used indirect measure of peripheral sensation; we performed this test to determine whether it could pick up differences as measured by the more invasive nerve conduction assay used by Walsh et al [29] in these same animals. Peripheral sensation, as measured by the tail flick test, showed no discernable differences between age groups in females or males (Figure 7C,D). Nerve conduction studies in these animals following the assays reported here showed that tail sensory nerve conduction was reduced in the 28 and 32-month-old males and females [29].

Premature death

Survival in C57BL/6 mice is well documented; 50% survivorship generally occurs about 28 months of age and by 32 months, survivorship is roughly 10% [22]. Very few studies use mice in these two age groups. Nonetheless it is between these two ages that we would expect age-related morbidity and mortality to become manifest, making these age groups clinically relevant. In this study, animals were subject to extensive and invasive measures of health over the course of a 4 to 4.5 month period. Roughly half of all animals (45% of females and 47% of males, respectively), died prematurely over the course of this study. The proportion of males and females within each age group that survived to the end of the study is given in Table 1; not surprisingly, mortality was greater among 28 and 32-month-old mice in both sexes. After controlling for multiple comparisons, lower percent body fat was associated with premature death but only among females (p = 0.0396); no health measures were significantly associated with premature death in males. This was true even for measures that differed among age groups (Figure 8).

Correlations between health parameters

Just as we have assumed that extending lifespan will also extend healthspan, we expect that health in one domain will be correlated with health in others. In other words, we expect measures of healthspan to be maintained or decline together, such that a mouse that shows superior grip strength will also perform better on the rotarod, be more active, etc. Our correlation analysis suggests otherwise, at least for assays used in this cross sectional study. The twelve health measures analyzed here are poorly correlated with one another (Tables 2 and 3, Figure 9). After correcting for multiple comparisons, 18% (12/66) of bivariate correlations among males and only 11% (7/66) bivariate correlations among females were significant (Figure 9). All health measures that were correlated in females were also significantly correlated in males.

Predictably, dark and light phase mass-specific metabolism and RMR were all positively correlated with each other for both females (Table 2, Figure 9 E, F, G) and males (Table 3; Figure 9 Q, R, S). Similarly, body mass and rotarod performance were negatively correlated for both males and females, demonstrating that larger animals perform more poorly at this task (Tables 2, 3; Figures 9D, L). Not surprisingly, percent body fat and body mass were positively correlated in both males and females (Table 2, 3; Figures 9C, J). More interestingly, levels of activity during the dark (=active) phase are positively correlated with grip strength in both males and females (Tables 2, 3; Figure 9A, H), and both grip strength and dark phase activity were significantly lower in older mice of both sexes (Figures 2, 7). It is intriguing to note that while body mass and grip strength have no discernable relationship in males or females (p > 0.999 in both cases), there is a significant, positive correlation between grip strength and percent body fat in both males and females (Tables 2, 3; Figures9B, I). Tail flick latency, rear stance width and rear stride length did not differ between age groups and were not significantly correlated with any other health parameter measured in either sex.

A few significant associations occurred in males only. Body mass and dark phase activity are negatively correlated whilst dark phase activity and rotarod are positively correlated with one another (Table 3, Figure 9K, M), suggesting that males who are more active during the dark phase weigh less and perform better on the rotarod. Conversely, dark phase activity is positively correlated with dark phase mass-specific metabolic rate in males, indicating that males who more active during the dark phase consume more oxygen (Table 3, Figure 9P). Why females failed to show these associations remains an open question.

Few healthspan measures are correlated with one another

Our results suggest that in older C57BL/6 mice there is very little correlation between performance on one healthspan measure and performance on another as measured in this study. If these assays are robust assessments of age-related changes in health and if age-related declines in function occur globally, we would have expected to see correlations across functional categories of measures. For instance, we might have expected that animals scoring high on tests of grip strength should also perform well other tests; however, there was no evidence of a global decline in health as measured here and very little correlation among tests. Looking at the performance of 28 and 32 month-old mice, those that performed well on the grip strength assay did not necessarily perform well on rotarod, were not consistently more active during the dark phase and did not show less sleep fragmentation. Conversely, poor performance on grip strength was not predictive of performance on other assays (Figures 10 and 11).

Fahlstrom et al [20] looked for correlations among healthspan measures in a cross-sectional study of male C57B/6J mice at 4, 22 and 28 months of age. They examined correlations between measures within age groups and found few correlations. The exception was in what they termed ‘exploratory component’ measures, e.g. animals that made few entries in the elevated plus maze also avoided the center of the open field arena. They did find that correlations among measures of the ‘exploratory component’ were maintained in 28-month-old male mice under dietary restriction but not under ad libitum feeding; however DR not rescue age-related declines in grip strength, balance or delayed object memory recollection [20]. Falstrom et al did not find significant correlations between body mass and health parameters within age groups. Further studies are needed to understand the relationship between age, body mass and measures of healthspan.

The lack of correlation between healthspan measures observed here suggests several different explanations that are not mutually exclusive. These results may indicate that aging is segmental, affecting organ systems and distinct functional domains differently or at different rates. It is also possible that motivational factors affecting performance on these tests vary between subjects within age groups and may not be consistent from one test to another. Measures that do not require active participation by the mouse may more accurately represent health as opposed to motivation. In this context, it is interesting to note that measures of body mass and percent fat account for 3/7 and 5/12 of the correlations observed in female and male mice respectively.

Healthspan measures of 28 and 32 month-old mice show few differences

In C57BL/6 mice survivorship declines from roughly 50% to 10% between the ages of 28 and 32 months, so it was somewhat surprising that there were few clear differences in performance on healthspan measures between these two age groups. However, given that this is a cross-sectional study, it is likely that there is a robust survival bias influencing these results. It will be necessary to use longitudinal data with repeated measures of the same individuals to assess whether there are significant changes in these and other measures of healthspan in older mice.

Healthspan measures were not correlated with premature mortality

Roughly 50% of individuals in both sexes were classified as dying prematurely during this study but only one measure in one sex was of predictive value. Percent body fat, in females only, was associated with premature death after controlling for the effects of age. We found no health parameters in males that were significantly associated with premature death after applying a correction for multiple comparisons. In this study, healthspan measures were taken only once and, within age groups, individual performance often varied widely (e.g. dark phase activity). A better and more statistically powerful strategy is to use multiple measures longitudinally in the same individuals and compare changes from baseline in these measures rather than comparing absolute values. Nonetheless, our results suggest the possibility that some measures of healthspan may be uncoupled from lifespan in the mouse, as has previously been shown in C. elegans [5]. Survival studies using minimally invasive longitudinal measures of healthspan are needed to discern the extent to which lifespan and individual measures of healthspan are correlated in mice.

Challenges for the study of healthspan in aging rodents

The results presented here are part of a larger collaborative effort to assess healthspan in aging mice. As part of that effort, we have described a large suite of healthspan measures, discussing their utility and limitations [31]. This study was undertaken in hopes of identifying relatively non-invasive, low-cost measures that would allow researchers to assess whether interventions that extend lifespan also extend health in mice. The only measures of health in which we found significant age-related changes in both sexes were body mass, body composition, grip strength, sleep fragmentation and activity during the 12-hour dark (=active) phase of the 24 hour light cycle. These assays are simple to implement, relatively non-invasive and can be repeated longitudinally so might offer some useful measures of health during aging. In some cases, results from the current study agree with previous studies, but others differ; unfortunately, comparisons between studies are confounded by several factors.

Firstly, because protocols for specific assays vary from lab to lab, it is difficult to compare results across studies. For instance, we measured activity over 24 hours, during one dark and one light phase of the 24-hour light cycle following a minimum of12 hours of habituation. Others, (e.g [19,32].) quantify activity over shorter periods ranging from minutes to hours. Likewise, grip strength is measured variously, using a force meter as we do here, by suspending the mouse from a wire rod by its forelimbs and timing how can hang suspended from the rod (e.g [19,20].), by allowing a mouse to grasp a wire grid with all four limbs, inverting the grid and timing its fall [14] or by pulling the mouse away from the cage lid and categorizing its grip as sustained, reduced or none [18]. In Table 4, we compare results of this study with three other cross-sectional studies of aging C57BL/6 mice [19–21]. Grip strength was reduced in older animals of both sexes in all studies, even though the techniques used differed; thus grip strength may provide a robust assessment of neuromuscular function in aging mice. Activity measures varied in both the time of day (light phase vs. dark phase) and the duration of time the animals were monitored (5 minutes to 12 hours). It is not clear that quantifying 5 minutes of spontaneous activity in a lighted arena is measuring the same phenomenon as quantifying activity over a 24 hour light-dark cycle. Not surprisingly, the results were inconsistent between studies, which might be a function of the methods but it could also be a consequence of the sex and/or age groups included in the studies. Similarly, older male mice appear to perform worse at the rotarod task in 3 out 4 studies but females showed no age-related differences in this study.

A second factor is that body size, which varies with age, sex and treatment, influences many of the healthspan assays we use (Figure 9). In the current study, male rotarod performance differed among age groups when assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA); however, there was no effect of age once the effect of body mass was removed (ANCOVA, p = 0.752). Small mice consistently perform better on the rotarod than large mice at all ages. Healthspan measures influenced by body mass are used in many studies of health, frailty, and interventions that affect aging [14,16,33]; however, our results suggest these analyses may confound age with age-related changes in body mass or treatment effects on body mass, making these unreliable measures of age-related changes of health in the mouse. For instance, age-matched animals on caloric restriction and long-lived growth hormone mutants may perform better than controls on the rotarod because their neuromuscular function is better preserved, because they are smaller, or both. Similarly, suspension tests may conflate age-related increase in body size with age-related decreases in strength. A study to determine whether age-related changes in body mass and differences in techniques influence the outcomes healthspan assays would prove useful in settling these issues.

Researchers exploring the relationship between health and aging in other model organisms (Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans) have developed batteries of tests to assess healthspan in many of the domains studied in rodents (Table 5). Measures of activity, motor function, body composition, energy expenditure and cognition have been developed that are broadly comparable to the tests used in rodents. Some measures of healthspan, such as cardiac and immune function, are better developed in rodent models. However, other aspects of healthspan like fecundity and stress resistance are more readily measured in worms and flies (Table 5). It is instructive to compare outcomes across taxa; for example, recent work from the Tissenbaum lab suggests that healthspan may be uncoupled from lifespan extension in long-lived mutants of C. elegans [5]. It would be useful to fully develop a schema that crosswalks healthspan measures among model organisms and humans, allowing the results found in one system to be compared with those observed in others. Future work should focus on explicitly assessing the extent to which measures of health and healthspan within functional domains can be translated between model organisms and whether the low correlation between measures of healthspan and extended lifespan is consistent across taxa.

Many measures of health that show no age-related changes in this study, but these results should be interpreted cautiously. There are well-documented strain specific responses to healthspan interventions [36], and so the results reported here may be specific to C57BL/6Nia. Furthermore, because this study is cross-sectional we are not documenting changes in individuals as they age, rather we are describing differences characteristic of mice in different age groups and using cross-sectional studies to draw inferences about longitudinal processes such as aging can be misleading [37]. Nonetheless, the majority of rodent studies are cross-sectional and the work reported here examines commonly used measures of healthspan in the most commonly used rodent strain, from both males and females and at older ages (28 and 32 months) than those generally reported.

To understand the associations between health measures, healthspan and lifespan, a prospective longitudinal study is required such that the same animals are measured using a diverse suite of non-invasive measures of health at regular intervals and exact time of death is known. The limitations of this study and the results of this and other healthspan assessments suggest more work is needed to fully understand how health parameters change throughout the life course of the mouse.

Animals and husbandry

In this cross-sectional study, female and male C57BL/6JNia mice obtained from the NIA colony maintained by Charles River Laboratory (Stone Ridge, NY) at 4, 20, 28 and 32 months of age (females, n = 20, 19, 30, 27; males, n = 22, 22, 32 and 30 respectively) were subjected to a battery of strength and mobility tests and were assessed for body composition and 24 hour energy expenditure at all four ages. Mice were received in groups of 10 animals of a single sex, at approximately 6 week intervals. Each shipment contained 2-3 animals in each age group, allowing for simultaneous testing of animals across ages.

All animals were individually housed (Tek Fresh bedding (Harlan Laboratories)), with food (7912.15 Irradiated Teklad LM Mouse/Rat diet, Harlan Laboratories) and water ad libitum. The mice were maintained on a 12/12 Light/Dark cycle at 24⁰C +/- 1.67 with 30-70% humidity. While at Charles River Laboratories prior to their arrival, the mice were housed with wood shaving bedding; food (sterilized NIH31 diet) and water were available ad libitum. Mice were acclimated for two weeks after arrival at UTHSCSA before the tests described here began. The assays reported here took place over a one-month testing period, thus animals that were entered into testing at 32 months of age were 33 months of age at the end of those assays.

The assays reported here were part of a larger suite of measures aimed at determining the trajectory of age-related changes physiological function and health in male and female C57BL/6 mice. The goal was to evaluate health in multiple domains in the same mouse using four cohorts in distinct age groups. In addition to the energetics, strength and mobility assays reported here these mice were subject to tests of neuromuscular, cardiac, visual, renal, immune, bone, and respiratory health over a four and a half month period in these animals (Table 6). Assays ranged from the minimally invasive (e.g. cognitive function and gait measures) to those requiring anesthesia (e.g. cardiac and neuromuscular function) (Table 6). Some studies took place over an extended period and involved repeated sampling; for example, immune function was measured over the course of 4 weeks and involved sampling at multiple time-points. Results from these companion studies have been [29,38] or will be reported elsewhere. Testing was conducted at two sites. At the Barshop Institute measures of body composition, indirect calorimetry, spontaneous activity over 24 hours, olfactory acuity, rotarod, gait analysis, tail flick, novel object recognition, grip strength, neuromuscular function and echocardiography/Doppler were performed over a period of 8 weeks. Animals were then transferred to the medical school at UTHSCSA, where they were acclimated and underwent further testing. Those assays included tests of visual acuity (optokinetic response), renal function, immune function, bone density (µ-CT, DEXA) and a terminal assay of lung function. By the time the final assay was conducted the animals were 4 to 4.5 months older than at the start of the study. The assays reported here were conducted at the Barshop Institute during the first 4 weeks and, since they were among the least invasive, were the first to be completed.

Ethics statement

Mice were maintained under barrier conditions at the University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio. Care and husbandry of the animals and all procedures for this study were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. All animals died naturally, were euthanized for health reasons or were euthanized at the end of the study during a terminal assay. Health was closely monitored daily for all animals by project staff; animals that showed evidence of becoming ill were checked more frequently until the condition resolved or the animal was euthanized. Terminally ill animals were euthanized via exposure to CO₂, followed by cervical dislocation.

Body composition

Body mass, fat-free mass and fat mass were measured for each mouse using a quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance system (Echo MRI 3-in-1 System, Houston, TX).

Energetics and spontaneous activity

Oxygen consumption (VO₂) and carbon dioxide production (VCO₂) were measured via indirect calorimetry for each mouse using the MARS system from Sables Systems (Las Vegas, NV). Mice were individually housed in a shoebox cage (18.5cm x 8.5cm x 12.5cm) with bedding, food and water (ad libitum) for approximately 48 hours. Each cage was connected to a flow pump, pulling the air from the cage through the flow pump, where it would flow downstream through a humidity meter, carbon dioxide and oxygen analyzer. Gas flow was measured over 24 hours following a minimum 12-hour acclimation period. VO₂ and VCO₂ were calculated using the ExpeData software from the MARS system. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) was calculated using the lowest ten measures of oxygen consumption over the 24-hour period. Activity was measured separately, using cages arrayed with infrared beams in the x-y plane (MotorMonitor, Kinder Scientific, Poway, CA). Each mouse was placed in a large, Plexiglas cage (38cm x 20cm x 11.5cm) with corncob bedding, and food and water ad libitum for a total of 40 hours. Following acclimation, data from a full 24 hour light-dark cycle used in analysis. The number of beam breaks in the X-Y axis plane was recorded and used as a measure activity. Sleep was assessed using infrared beam breaks following the method validated by Pack et al [39]. In brief, periods of inactivity ≥ 40 seconds were scored as sleep. Sleep fragmentation was measured as the number of discrete sleep bouts per hour sleep during the light (=inactive) phase [24].

Movement and strength parameters

Grip strength: Grip strength was measured by gently pulling the mouse by the tail in a horizontal plane parallel with the base plate of the grip strength meter (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, Ohio). A square mesh grid was used and the animal was allowed to grip the mesh with all four paws prior to being pulled. The animal’s grip strength was measured as peak force registered. Each mouse was tested ten times, with the maximum grip strength used in analyses.

Tail Flick Test: This assay uses a measure of heat sensitivity in the tail as a proxy for proprioception. Mice were habituated in restraint tubes over a period of 3 consecutive days. On the 4th day the mouse, in its restraint tube, was placed on the tail flick instrument (IITC Tail Flick Analgesia Meter, IITC Life Science, Woodland Hills, CA). A halogen light source at 20% intensity produced heat, which is directed on a 4x6mm area on the mouse’s tail for 10 seconds or until the mouse moves/flicks its tail, whichever comes first. The amount of time from exposure to the laser until the mouse flicks its tail (latency) was used in analyses.

Gait: The ExerGait (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, Ohio) is a treadmill with a clear belt. The mouse is placed on the belt and a video camera records the animal while it walks on the treadmill from below. The belt speed was adjusted for each mouse until the animal could maintain a consistent walking speed. Most animals walked at speeds between 12-15 cm/s. Gait parameters were interpolated from the video using the Treadscan software (Cleversys Inc, Reston, VA).

Rotarod: Mice were tested on an accelerating rotarod (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, Ohio) that started at 4 revolutions per minute (rpm), and increased 0.2 rpm/second. The total time the mouse remained on the rod (including passive rotations) was recorded as latency to fall. Mice performed six trials per day and were trained on rotarod for five days over a consecutive two-week period. On the sixth testing day the animals were assessed using six trials with the maximum latency to fall (in seconds) of those six trials used in analyses.

Premature death

While this was not survival study, we did record any animals that died prematurely during the 4 to 4.5 month assessment period. Animals that died spontaneously during the study or were euthanized for health reasons were classified as premature deaths.

Statistical methods

Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the effects of age group, sex and the interaction of these two factors. Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons was used in post-hoc testing. Analyses were performed using SPSS (IBM Corp. Released 2013. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). Figures were prepared using sing GraphPad Prism version 6.00 for Windows and Mac OS X, GraphPad Software, San Diego California USA, www.graphpad.com.

To determine the extent to which health measures were correlated with each other we computed Pearson correlations among age groups for twelve healthspan measures. Bonferroni corrections were applied to correct for multiple comparisons.

To determine whether specific measures of health status in the mouse were associated with premature death, we ran a logistic regression to assess the effects of individual health measures on premature death. We controlled for the effects of age by including age as an ordered factor (4 months < 20 months < 28 months < 32 months). This allowed us to ascertain if individual health parameters were correlated with an increased probability of premature death independent of the age. For this analysis, we looked at the 12 health measures used in the correlation analysis above. We used a Bonferroni correction to control for the effects of multiple comparisons. Correlation analyses and logistic regression were completed using the statistical program R (www.r-project.org).